February 16, 2024

Publications, Data, & Statistics

These articles provide information related to Shigella infections (shigellosis) in the United States and around the world. They include key publications on related topics but are not intended to be a comprehensive list of references.

MMWR Articles

Bowen A, Eikmeier D, Talley P, Siston A, Smith S, Hurd J, Smith K, Leano F, Bicknese A, Norton C, Campbell D. Notes from the Field: Outbreaks of Shigella sonnei infection with decreased susceptibility to azithromycin among men who have sex with men — Chicago and Metropolitan Minneapolis-St. Paul, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015; 64(21):597-8.
Bowen A, Hurd J, Hoover C, Khachadourian Y, Traphagen E, Harvey E, Libby T, Ehlers S, Ongpin M, Norton C, Bicknese A, Kimura A. Importation and Domestic Transmission of Shigella sonnei resistant to ciprofloxacin — United States, May 2014–February 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015; 64(12):318-20.
CDC. Notes from the field: Outbreak of infections caused by Shigella sonnei with decreased susceptibility to azithromycin–Los Angeles, California, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62(9):812-813.
CDC. Outbreaks of multidrug-resistant Shigella sonnei gastroenteritis associated with day care centers—Kansas, Kentucky, and Missouri, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55(39):1068-71.
CDC. Shigella sonnei outbreak among men who have sex with men–San Francisco, California, 2000-2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50(42):922-6.
Crim SM, Griffin PM, Tauxe R, Marder EP, Gillis D, Cronquist AB, Cartter M, Tobin-D'Angelo M, Blythe D, Smith K, Lathrop S, Zansky S, Cieslak PR, Dunn J, Holt KG, Wolpert B, Henao OL. Preliminary incidence and trends of infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food – Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network, 10 U.S. sites, 2006-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(18):495-9.
Hines JZ, Pinsent T, Rees K, Vines J, Bowen A, Hurd J, Leman RF, Hedberg K. Shigellosis outbreak among homeless persons — Oregon, 2015–2016. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2016; 65(31): 812-3.
Huang JY, Henao OL, Griffin PM, Vugia DJ, Cronquist AB, Hurd S, Tobin-D'Angelo M, Ryan P, Smith K, Lathrop S, Zansky S, Cieslak PR, Dunn J, Holt KG, Wolpert BJ, Patrick ME. Infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food and the effect of increasing use of culture-independent diagnostic tests on surveillance–Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network, 10 U.S. Sites, 2012-2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(14):368-71.
Iwamoto M, Huang JY, Cronquist AB, Medus C, Hurd S, Zansky S, Dunn J, Woron AM, Oosmanally N, Griffin PM, Besser J, Henao OL. Bacterial enteric infections detected by culture-independent diagnostic tests–FoodNet, United States, 2012-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(9):252-7.
Painter JE, Walker AT, Pytell J, Nua MT, Soliai-Lemusu S, Mintz ED, Ali I, Parsons M, Martin H, Beach M, Bowen A, Cope J. Notes from the field: outbreak of diarrheal illness caused by Shigella flexneri – American Samoa, May-June 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(1):30.
CDC. Outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with an interactive water fountain at a beachside park – Florida, 1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000:49(25);565-8.
CDC. Outbreaks of Shigella sonnei infection associated with eating fresh parsley – United States and Canada, July – August 1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999:48(14);285-9
Shigella flexneri Serotype 3 Infections among men who have sex with men — Chicago, Illinois, 2003—2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005:54(33): 820–22.
Wikswo ME, Kambhampati A, Shioda K, Walsh KA, Bowen A, Hall AJ. Outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis transmitted by person-to-person contact, environmental contamination, and unknown modes of transmission–United States, 2009-2013. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2015;64(12):1-16.

References

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Ailes E, Scallan E, Berkelman RL, Kleinbaum DG, Tauxe RV, Moe CL. Do differences in risk factors, medical care seeking, or medical practices explain the geographic variation in campylobacteriosis in Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) sites? Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54 (5):464-71.
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Arias C, Sala MR, Dominguez A, Bartolome R, Benavente A, Veciana P, Pedrol A, Hoyo G. Waterborne epidemic outbreak of Shigella sonnei gastroenteritis in Santa Maria de Palautordera, Catalonia, Spain. Epidemiol Infect. 2006;134(3):598-604.
Arvelo W, Hinkle CJ, Nguyen TA, Weiser T, Steinmuller N, Khan F, Gladbach S, Parsons M, Jennings D, Zhu BP, Mintz E, Bowen A. Transmission risk factors and treatment of pediatric shigellosis during a large daycare center-associated outbreak of multidrug resistant Shigella sonnei: implications for the management of shigellosis outbreaks among children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28(11):976-80.
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Baker KS, Dallman TJ, Ashton PM, Day M, Hughes G, Crook PD, Gilbart VL, Zittermann S, Allen VG, Howden BP, Tomita T, Valcanis M, Harris SR, Connor TR, Sintchenko V, Howard P, Brown JD, Petty NK, Gouali M, Thanh DP, Keddy KH, Smith AM, Talukder KA, Faruque SM, Parkhill J, Baker S, Weill FX, Jenkins C,Thomson NR. Intercontinental dissemination of azithromycin-resistant shigellosis through sexual transmission: a cross-sectional study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15(8):913-921.
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Borg ML, Modi A, Tostmann A, Gobin M, Cartwright J, Quigley C, Crook P, Boxall N, Paul J, Cheasty T, Gill N, Hughes G, Simms I, Oliver I. Ongoing outbreak of Shigella flexneri serotype 3a in men who have sex with men in England and Wales, data from 2009-2011. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(13):1-5.
Bowen A, Eikmeier D, Talley P, Siston A, Smith S, Hurd J, Smith K, Leano F, Bicknese A, Norton C, Campbell D. Notes from the Field: Outbreaks of Shigella sonnei infection with decreased susceptibility to azithromycin among men who have sex with men — Chicago and Metropolitan Minneapolis-St. Paul, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(21):597-8.
Bowen A GJ, Bicknese A, Campbell D, Hurd J, Kirkcaldy R. Elevated risk of multidrug-resistant Shigella infections among men who have sex with men—United States, 2011– 2015. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016; 22(9): 1613-16.
Bowen A, Hurd J, Hoover C, Khachadourian Y, Traphagen E, Harvey E, Libby T, Ehlers S, Ongpin M, Norton JC, Bicknese A, Kimura A. Importation and domestic transmission of Shigella sonnei resistant to ciprofloxacin – United States, May 2014-February 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(12):318-20.
Butler T. Haemolytic uraemic syndrome during shigellosis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2012;106(7):395-9.
CDC. Antibiotic Resistance Threats in the United States, 2019. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC; 2019.
CDC. COVID-19: U.S. Impact on Antimicrobial Resistance, Special Report 2022. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC; 2022.
CDC Health Alert Network. Ciprofloxacin- and Azithromycin-nonsusceptible shigellosis in the United States. 2015.
CDC. National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System: Enteric bacteria 2012.[PDF – 88 pages] 2013.
CDC. Notes from the field: outbreak of infections caused by Shigella sonnei with decreased susceptibility to azithromycin–Los Angeles, California, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62(9):171.
CDC. Outbreaks of multidrug-resistant Shigella sonnei gastroenteritis associated with day care centers—Kansas, Kentucky, and Missouri, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55(39):1068-71.
CDC. Shigella sonnei outbreak among men who have sex with men–San Francisco, California, 2000-2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50(42):922-6.
Chen M, Delpech V, O'Sullivan B, Donovan B. Reactive arthritis associated with Shigella sonnei Int J STD AIDS. 2002;13(2):135-6.
Chiou CS, Izumiya H, Kawamura M, Liao YS, Su YS, Wu HH, Chen WC, Lo YC. The worldwide spread of ciprofloxacin-resistant Shigella sonnei among HIV-infected men who have sex with men, Taiwan. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016;22(4):383 e11-6.
Chung The H, Rabaa MA, Pham Thanh D, De LAppe N, Cormican M, Valcanis M, Howden BP, Wangchuk S, Bodhidatta L, Mason CJ, Nguyen T, Vu Thuy D, Thompson CN, Phu Huong Lan N, Voong Vinh P, Ha Thanh T, Turner P, Sar P, Rhwaites G, Thomson NR, Holt KE, Baker S. South Asia as a reservoir for the global spread of Ciprofloxacin-resistant Shigella sonnei: a cross-sectional study. PLoS Medicine. 2016;13(8):1-12.
Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. M100-S26: Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing.2016.
Cordell RL. The risk of infectious diseases among child care providers. J Am Med Womens Assoc. 2001;56(3):109-12.
Crim SM, Griffin PM, Tauxe R, Marder EP, Gillis D, Cronquist AB, Cartter M, Tobin-D'Angelo M, Blythe D, Smith K, Lathrop S, Zansky S, Cieslak PR, Dunn J, Holt KG, Wolpert B, Henao OL. Preliminary incidence and trends of infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food – Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network, 10 U.S. sites, 2006-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(18):495-9.
Crim SM, Iwamoto M, Huang JY, Griffin PM, Gilliss D, Cronquist AB, Cartter M, Tobin-D'Angelo M, Blythe D, Smith K, Lathrop S, Zansky S, Cieslak PR, Dunn J, Holt KG, Lance S, Tauxe R, Henao OL. Incidence and trends of infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food–Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network, 10 U.S. sites, 2006-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63(15):328-32.
Cronquist AB, Mody RK, Atkinson R, Besser J, Tobin- D'Angelo M, Hurd S, Robinson T, Nicholson C, Mahon BE. Impacts of culture-independent diagnostic practices on public health surveillance for bacterial enteric pathogens. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(5):432-9.
Das JK, Tripathi A, Ali A, Hassan A, Dojosoeandy C, Bhutta Z. Vaccines for the prevention of diarrhea due to cholera, Shigella, ETEC and rotavirus. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(3):1-11.
De Lappe N, O'Connor J, Garvey P, McKeown P, Cormican M. Ciprofloxacin-Resistant Shigella sonnei Associated with Travel to India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2015;21(5):894-6.
De Schrijver K, Bertrand S, Gutierrez Garitano I, Van den Branden D, Van Schaeren J. Outbreak of Shigella sonnei infections in the Orthodox Jewish community of Antwerp, Belgium, April to August 2008. Euro Surveill. 2011;16(14).
DuPont HL, Hornick RB, Dawkins AT, Snyder MJ, Formal SB. The response of man to virulent Shigella flexneri. J Infect Dis. 1969;119(3):296-9.
DuPont HL, Levine MM, Hornick RB, Formal SB. Inoculum size in shigellosis and implications for expected mode of transmission. J Infect Dis. 1989;159(6):1126-8.
Finch M, Rodey G, Lawrence D, Blake P. Epidemic Reiter's syndrome following an outbreak of shigellosis. Eur J Epidemiol. 1986;2(1):26-30.
Galanakis E, Tzoufi M, Charisi M, Levidiotou S, Papadopoulou ZL. Rate of seizures in children with shigellosis. Acta Paediatr. 2002;91(1):101-2.
Garrett V, Bornschlegel K, Lange D, Reddy V, Kornstein L, Kornblum J, Agasan A, Hoekstra M, Layton M, Sobel J. A recurring outbreak of Shigella sonnei among traditionally observant Jewish children in New York City: the risks of daycare and household transmission. Epidemiol Infect. 2006;134(6):1231-6.
Gaudreau C, Barkati S, Leduc JM, Pilon PA, Favreau J, Bekal S. Shigella with reduced azithromycin susceptibility, Quebec, Canada, 2012-2013. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014;20(5):854-6.
Gaudreau C, Ratnayake R, Pilon PA, Gagnon S, Roger M, Levesque S. Ciprofloxacin-resistant Shigella sonnei among men who have sex with men, Canada, 2010. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17(9):1747-50.
Ghosh S, Pazhani GP, Chowdhury G, Guin S, Dutta S, Rajendran K, Bhattacharya MN, Takeda Y, Niyogi SK, Balakrish Nair G, Ramamurthy T. Genetic characteristics and changing antimicrobial resistance among Shigella isolated from hospitalized diarrheal patients in Kolkata, India. [PDF – 7 pages] J Med Microbiol. 2011;60(10):1460-6.
Goldberg EM, Balamuth F, Desrochers CR, Mittal MK. Seizure and altered mental status in a 12-year-old child with Shigella sonnei. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2011;27(2):135-7.
Gupta A, Polyak CS, Bishop RD, Sobel J, Mintz ED. Laboratory-confirmed shigellosis in the United States, 1989-2002: epidemiologic trends and patterns. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(10):1372-7.
Guzman CA, Borsutzky S, Favre D, Dietrich G. Vaccines against infections caused by Salmonella, Shigella, and pathogenic Escherichia coli. EcoSal Plus. 2004;1(1):1-32.
Hannu T, Mattila L, Siitonen A, Leirisalo-Repo M. Reactive arthritis attributable to Shigella infection: a clinical and epidemiological nationwide study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64(4):594-8.
Heiman KE, Karlsson M, Grass J, Howie B, Kirkcaldy RD, Mahon B, Brooks JT, Bowen A. Notes from the field: Shigella with decreased susceptibility to azithromycin among men who have sex with men – United States, 2002-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63(6):132-3.
Hines JZ, Pinsent T, Rees K, Vines J, Bowen A, Hurd J, Leman RF, Hedberg K. Shigellosis outbreak among homeless persons — Oregon, 2015–2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016; 65(31): 812-3.
Hoffmann C, Sahly H, Jessen A, Ingiliz P, Stellbrink HJ, Neifer S, Schewe K, Dupke S, Baumgarten A, Kuschel A, Krznaric I. High rates of quinolone-resistant strains of Shigella sonnei in HIV-infected MSM. 2013;41(5):999-1003.
Huang JY, Henao OL, Griffin PM, Vugia DJ, Cronquist AB, Hurd S, Tobin-D'Angelo M, Ryan P, Smith K, Lathrop S, Zansky S, Cieslak PR, Dunn J, Holt KG, Wolpert BJ, Patrick ME. Infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food and the effect of increasing use of culture-independent diagnostic tests on surveillance–Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network, 10 U.S. Sites, 2012-2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(14):368-71.
Iwamoto M, Huang JY, Cronquist AB, Medus C, Hurd S, Zansky S, Dunn J, Woron AM, Oosmanally N, Griffin PM, Besser J, Henao OL. Bacterial enteric infections detected by culture-independent diagnostic tests–FoodNet, United States, 2012-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(9):252-7.
Jones TF, Gerner-Smidt P. Nonculture diagnostic tests for enteric diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(3):513-4.
Kantele A. As far as travelers' risk of acquiring resistant intestinal microbes is considered, no antibiotics (absorbable or nonabsorbable) are safe. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60(12):1872–3.
Khan WA, Dhar U, Salam MA, Griffiths JK, Rand W, Bennish ML. Central nervous system manifestations of childhood shigellosis: prevalence, risk factors, and outcome. 1999;103(2):E18.
Lahat E, Katz Y, Bistritzer T, Eshel G, Aladjem M. Recurrent seizures in children with Shigella-associated convulsions. Ann Neurol. 1990;28(3):393-5.
Lauhio A, Lähdevirta J, Janes R, Kontiainen S, Repo H. Reactive arthritis associated with Shigella sonnei infection. Arthritis Rheum. 1988;31(9):1190-3.
Maguire HC, Seng C, Chambers S, Cheasty T, Double G, Soltanpoor N, Morse D. Shigella outbreak in a school associated with eating canteen food and person to person spread. Commun Dis Public Health. 1998;1(4):279-80.
Mazumder RN, Salam MA, Ali M, Bhattacharya MK. Reactive arthritis associated with Shigella dysenteriae type 1 infection. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res. 1997;15(1):21-4.
Morduchowicz G, Huminer D, Siegman-Igra Y, Drucker M, Block CS, Pitlik SD. Shigella bacteremia in adults. A report of five cases and review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1987;147(11):2034-7.
Morgan O, Crook P, Cheasty T, Jiggle B, Giraudon I, Hughes H, Jones SM. Shigella sonnei outbreak among homosexual men, London. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(9):1458-60.
Morse HG, Rate RG, Bonnell MD, Kuberski TT. Reiter's syndrome in a five-year-old girl. Arthritis Rheum. 1980;23(8):960-1.
Nelson MR, Shanson DC, Hawkins D, Gazzard BG. Shigella in HIV infection. AIDS. 1991;5(8):1031-2.
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O'Donnell AT, Vieira AR, Huang JY, Whichard J, Cole D, Karp BE. Quinolone-resistant Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis infections associated with international travel. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59(9):e139-41.
Okame M, Adachi E, Sato H, Shimizu S, Kikuchi T, Miyazaki N, Koga M, Nakamura H, Suzuki M, Oyaizu N, Fujii T, Iwamoto A, Koibuchi T. Shigella sonnei outbreak among men who have sex with men in Tokyo. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2012;65(3):277-8.
Painter JE, Walker AT, Pytell J, Nua MT, Soliai-Lemusu S, Mintz ED, Ali I, Parsons M, Martin H, Beach M, Bowen A, Cope J. Notes from the field: outbreak of diarrheal illness caused by Shigella flexneri – American Samoa, May-June 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(1):30.
HHS. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. [PDF – 425 pages] Panel on Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents. 2015.
Pons MJ, Gomes C, Martinez-Puchol S, Ruiz L, Mensa L, Vila J, Gascon J, Ruiz J. Antimicrobial resistance in Shigella causing traveller's diarrhoea (1995-2010): a retrospective analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2013;11(5):315-9.
Public Health Agency of Canada. Outbreak of Shigella flexneri and Shigella sonnei enterocolitis in men who have sex with men, Quebec, 1999 to 2001. Can Commun Dis Rep. 2005;31(8):85-90.
Rahaman MM, Greenough WB, 3rd. Shigellosis and haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Lancet. 1978;1(8072):1051.
Ratnayake R, Allard R, Pilon PA. Shifting dominance of Shigella species in men who have sex with men. [PDF – 5 pages] Epidemiol Infect. 2012;140(11):2082-6.
Reller ME, Nelson JM, Molbak K, Ackman DM, Schoonmake- Bopp DJ, Root TP, Mintz ED. A large, multiple-restaurant outbreak of infection with Shigella flexneri serotype 2a traced to tomatoes. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(2):163-9.
Rice CE, Maierhofer C, Fields KS, Ervin M, Lanza ST, Turner AN. Beyond anal sex: sexual practices of men who have sex with men and associations with HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. J Sex Med. 2016;13(3):374-82.
Ridpath AD, KL VE, Bragg S, Campbell S, Convery C, Cope A, Devinney K, Diesel JC, Kikuchi N, Lee N, Lewis FM. Shigellosis Cases with Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections: Population-Based Data from 6 US Jurisdictions, 2007-2016. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 2022;49(8):576-581.
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Scallan E, Hoekstra RM, Angulo FJ, Tauxe RV, Widdowson MA, Roy SL, Jones JL, Griffin PM. Foodborne illness acquired in the United States–major pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17(1):7-15.
Scallan E, Mahon BE. Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) in 2012: a foundation for food safety in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(5):381-4.
Serafino Wani RL, Filson SA, Chattaway MA, Godbole G. Invasive shigellosis in MSM. Int J STD AIDS. 2015;27(10):917-919.
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Sjolund Karlsson M, Bowen A, Reporter R, Folster JP, Grass JE, Howie RL, Taylor J, Whichard J. Outbreak of infections caused by Shigella sonnei with reduced susceptibility to azithromycin in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57(3):1559-60.
Sobel J, Cameron DN, Ismail J, Strockbine N, Williams M, Diaz PS, Westley B, Rittmann M, DiCristina J, Ragazzoni H, Tauxe RV, Mintz ED. A prolonged outbreak of Shigella sonnei infections in traditionally observant Jewish communities in North America caused by a molecularly distinct bacterial subtype. J Infect Dis. 1998;177(5):1405-9.
Valcanis M, Brown JD, Hazelton B, OʼSullivan MV, Kuzevski A, Lane CR, Howden BP. Outbreak of locally acquired azithromycin-resistant Shigella flexneri infection in men who have sex with men. Pathology. 2015;47(1):87-8.
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Watson JT, Jones RC, Fernandez J, Cortes C, Gerber SI, Kuo KJ, Price JS, Brooks JT, Jennings D, Fair M, Mintz E, Bowen A. Shigella flexneri serotype 3 infections among men who have sex with men–Chicago, Illinois, 2003-2004 MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54(33):820-2.
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Wikswo ME, Kambhampati A, Shioda K, Walsh KA, Bowen A, Hall AJ. Outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis transmitted by person-to-person contact, environmental contamination, and unknown modes of transmission–United States, 2009-2013. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2015;64(12):1-16.
Wong MR, Reddy V, Hanson H, Johnson KM, Tsoi B, Cokes C, Gallagher L, Lee L, Plentsova A, Dang T, Krueger A, Joyce K, Balter S. Antimicrobial resistance trends of Shigella serotypes in New York City, 2006-2009. Microb Drug Resist. 2010;16(2):155-61.
Yang Z, Huang Z, Dong Z, Li J, Zhang S, Wu N, Jin M. Risk factors for HIV diagnosis among men who have sex with men: results of a case–control study in one sample of eastern china AIDS research and human retroviruses. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses. 2016; 0(0): 1-6.

February 16, 2024

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